turning points index

<body><table border="0"> <tr> <td> <p> <a href="cathode_rays/cathode_rays.htm"><b> 9.1 The discovery of the electron</b></a> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.1.1 Cathode rays</font> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.1.2 Thermionic emission of electrons</font> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.1.3 Deflection of an electron beam in a uniform electric field</font> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.1.4 Deflection of an electron beam in a uniform magnetic field</font> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.1.5 Determination of the specific charge on an electron </font> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"><a href="Millikan/millikan_sim/millikan.html">9.1.6 Principle of Millikan's determination of the charge on an electron</a> </font> </td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> </tr> </table><table border="0" cellspacing="1"> <tr> <td colspan="2" height="24"><b>9.2 Wave particle duality</b>   </td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24" colspan="2"><font size="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-1.htm">9.2.1 Newton's corpuscular theory of light</a> </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="34"><font size="2">  </font></td> <td class="xl19" height="34" align="right"><font size="2"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#wpd - cf huygen's">Comparison with Huygens' wave theory in general terms </a></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-1.htm#Why was Newton’s theory preferred"><font size="2">The reasons why Newton's theory was preferred</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="32" colspan="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-2.htm" target="main"><font size="2"> 9.2.2 The significance of Young's double slits experiment</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="34"></td> <td class="xl19" height="34" align="right"><font size="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-2.htm#Explanation for fringes in general terms">Explanation for fringes in general terms, no calculations are expected</a></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><font size="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-2.htm#Delayed acceptance">Delayed acceptance of Huygens' wave theory of light</a></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24" colspan="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-3.htm" target="main"><font size="2"> 9.2.3 Electromagnetic waves</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td height="24" class="xl19" style="mso-ignore: colspan" align="right"><font size="2">Nature of electromagnetic waves</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="34"></td> <td height="34" class="xl19" style="mso-ignore: colspan" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#Maxwell"><font size="2">Maxwell's formula for the Speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24" class="xl19" style="mso-ignore: colspan"></td> <td height="24" class="xl19" style="mso-ignore: colspan" align="right"><a href="speed_of_light.htm"><font size="2">Michelson's measurement of the speed of light</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24" class="xl19" style="mso-ignore: colspan"></td> <td height="24" class="xl19" style="mso-ignore: colspan" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#Hertz"><font size="2">Hertz's discovery of radio waves</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="22" colspan="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-4.htm" target="main"><font size="2"> 9.2.4 Black body radiation</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#Black body"><font size="2">Black body radiation curves</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="wave_particle_duality/why_does_classical_physics_predi.htm"><font size="2">Outline of the failure of classical wave theory; the ultra violet catastrophe</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-4.htm#Planck"><font size="2">Planck's concept of energy quanta to explain black body radiation: E =hf</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><font size="2">The significance of energy quantisation</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" colspan="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-5.htm" target="main"><font size="2" face="Arial"> 9.2.5 The discovery of photoelectricity</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#Einstein's photoelectric theory"><font size="2">Millikan's photoelectric experiment</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><font size="2">The failure of classical wave theory to explain photoelectricity</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><font size="2">The significance of Einstein's explanation of photoelectricity</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><font size="2">photon energy = hf</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24" colspan="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-6.htm" target="main"><font size="2"> 9.2.6 Wave particle duality</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24">                                 </td> <td height="17" class="xl19" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><font size="2">De Broglie's hypothesis supported by electron diffraction experiments</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman">p=h</font>/<font face="Symbol">l   l = </font><font face="Times New Roman">h/<font FACE="Symbol">Ö</font>2me</font></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><font size="2">Double slit electron interference</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><font size="2">Results with low intensity and high intensity electron beams</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><font size="2">Comparison with light photons</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19" height="24" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#wpd probabilistic interpretation"><font size="2">Probabilistic interpretation of wave amplitude</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24" colspan="2"><a href="wave_particle_duality/9-2-7.htm" target="main"><font size="2"> 9.2.7 Electron microscopes</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19"><font size="2">Estimate of anode voltage needed to produce wavelengths of the order of the size of the atom</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#The TEM"><font size="2">Principle of operation of the transmission electron microscope (T.E.M.)</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19"><font size="2">Limitations of the theoretical resolving power due to lens aberration and sample thickness</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19"><font size="2">Comparison of the de Broglie wavelength of electrons at thermal energies with electrons at energies of the order of keV</font></td> </tr> <tr> <td height="24"></td> <td class="xl19"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#The STM"><font size="2">Principle of operation of the scanning tunnelling microscope (S.T.M.)</font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" height="24"><font size="1" face="Times New Roman">acknowledgement:</font> <font size="1" face="Times New Roman">notes courtesy of R. Bocking </font></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" height="33"></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" height="33"><b> 9.3 <a href="special_relativity/theoryofrelativity.htm"> Special relativity</a></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" height="17"> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.3.1 <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#michelson - morley"> The Michelson-Morley experiment</a></font></p> <p> <font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.3.2 Einstein's theory of special relativity <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#two postulates of sp relativity">- two postulates</a></font></p> <p><font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.3.3 <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#time dilation"> Time dilation</a></font></p> <p><font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.3.4 <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#Length contraction"> Length contraction</a></font></p> <p><font size="2" face="Times New Roman"> 9.3.5 <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#mass and energy 4 sp relativity"> Mass and energy</a></font></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" height="16"></td> </tr> </table><table> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt" colspan="2"><b> 9.4 Towards absolute zero</b></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt" colspan="2"><font size="2"> 9.4.1 Absolute zero</font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt"></td> <td style="width:273pt"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#abs zero"><font size="2">concept</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt" colspan="2"><font size="2"> 9.4.2 <a href="absolute_zero/thermodynamics.htm"> Heating and cooling </a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/thermodynamics.htm"><font size="2">First law of thermodynamics</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;width:133pt"></td> <td style="width:273pt" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/thermodynamics.htm#First Law Of Thermodynamics"><font size="2"><font face="Symbol">D</font>Q = <font face="Symbol">D</font>U + <font face="Symbol">D</font>W</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><font size="2">Work done by an ideal gas expanding against constant pressure: W = p </font><a href="absolute_zero/thermodynamics.htm#First Law Of Thermodynamics"><font face="Symbol">D</font></a><font size="2">V</font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#specific latent heat"><font size="2">Specific latent heat</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#cooling by evap"><font size="2">Cooling by evaporation</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/towardsabszero.htm#Cooling by adiabatic expansion"><font size="2">Cooling by adiabatic expansion of a gas</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#joule kelvin effect"><font size="2">The Joule Kelvin effect</font></a><font size="2">  <a href="absolute_zero/towardsabszero.htm#The Joule-Kelvin effect">more notes</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/towardsabszero.htm#inversion temperature"><font size="2">Inversion temperature</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#andrews"><font size="2">Discussion of Andrew's experiment</font></a> <font size="2"> <a href="absolute_zero/andrewexperimentalternative.htm">more notes, yet more notes</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" colspan="2"><font size="2"> 9.4.3 Liquefaction of gases</font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#p v graph"><font size="2">Graphs of p against V</font></a> <font size="2"> and <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#pV against P graph"> p V against p</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#boyle temp"><font size="2">The Boyle temperature</font></a><font size="2">, <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#critical temp"> critical temperature</a> and <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#critical pressure"> critical pressure</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><font size="2">Outline of the <a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#joule kelvin effect"> Joule Kelvin effect </a> to <a href="absolute_zero/andrewsexperiement.htm">liquefy a gas</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/towardsabszero.htm#countercurrent heat exchanger"><font size="2">Countercurrent heat exchanger</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" align="right"><font size="2">Significance of the <a href="absolute_zero/towardsabszero.htm#inversion temperature">Inversion temperature</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" colspan="2" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"><font size="2"> 9.4.4 <a href="absolute_zero/superfluidsandsuperconductors.htm"> Superfluids and superconductors</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#He as superfluid"><font size="2">Discovery of liquid helium as a superfluid</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/superfluidsandsuperconductors.htm#lambda point"><font size="2">Disappearance of the viscosity of liquid helium below the lambda point</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#superfluid effects"><font size="2">Superfluid effects</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#resistivity vs T for superconductor"><font size="2">Variation of resistivity with temperature for a superconductor</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt" align="right"><a href="ph09_summary_off_web.htm#metal superconductors"><font size="2">Metals, alloys and compounds as superconductors</font></a></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/superfluidsandsuperconductors.htm#critical temperature"><font size="2">Critical temperature</font></a> <font size="2"> and <a href="absolute_zero/superfluidsandsuperconductors.htm#current density supercond"> current density</a></font></td> </tr> <tr height="17" style="height:12.75pt"> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan"></td> <td class="xl17" style="height:12.75pt;mso-ignore:colspan" align="right"><a href="absolute_zero/superfluidsandsuperconductors.htm#High temperature superconductors"><font size="2">High temperature superconductors</font></a> <font size="2"> and<a href="absolute_zero/superfluidsandsuperconductors.htm#Applications of superconductors"> possible applications</a></font></td> </tr> </table></body>